The character of Scrooge Essay Example for Free

The character of Scrooge Essay He asks the ghost: Tell me if Tiny Tim will live if these shadows remain unaltered by the future, the child will die. This shows that Scrooge feels guilty for not giving his clerk more money as he witnesses their way of life. The ghost then takes Scrooge to visit his nephew Fred on Christmas day. Fred is having a splendid time and is celebrating a more modern Christmas with fun, laughter, drinking booze and playing games such as: similes and yes or no. It is less religious as they have more money and a bright, dry gleaming house However, they still have strong moral values like the Cratchits. Dickens suggests that Scrooge is missing out on the fun and games by saying, that the consequence of his taking a dislike to us and not making merry with us, is, as I think, that he loses some pleasant moments, which could do him no harm. This suggests that Scrooge starts to feel a bit of remorse, since he turned the invite down. Scrooge is forced to realise that he has missed a chance to be merry with the only family he has left in the world. Finally, the ghost shows Scrooge two personifications of the social situation in the form of two children: Ignorance (a boy) and Want (a girl), who symbolise mankinds downfall. Dickens uses this personification to emphasise the point of mankinds destruction, for instance the spirit says, Most of all beware this boy, for on his brow I see that written which Doom This signifies if people continue to ignore the poor, society will crumble. In this stave Scrooge feels new emotions such as regret for not paying his clerk Bob Cratchit enough money, since he lives in poverty with a huge family and a crippled son, and more regret for not attending the invite from Fred. Also, he feels a lot sadder and some happiness for Freds games and the laughter, Scrooges family had without him. The ghost of Christmas yet to come represents death and judgement, this ghost is also known as a phantom because it is wearing a black cloak which conceals its face and it doesnt say a word to add to the morbid atmosphere. They visited a house where there was one little knot of business men with a lady trying to sell some of Scrooges possessions, he sees nobody is upset by his death, but instead raiding his hose and selling off his property. I hope he didnt die of anything catching Eh? Dont you be afraid of that. This shows that people are joking over his death and no-one cares about his departure from the face of the earth. He is very upset that no-one cares about his death, all they can do is laugh and attempt to make a profit from his belongings. Scrooge asks the spirit If there is any person in the town, who feels emotion caused by this mans death Show that person to me, spirit They go to the Cratchits house, but The only emotion that the ghost could show him, caused by the event, was one of pleasure. This emphasises that no-one liked him and cared about him at all, so they were not sad to witness his death. After a while, they return to the Cratchits house where Bob has just returned from work. Dickens makes Scrooge feel miserable, regret and guilt that he did not offer his help to save Tiny Tim from dying, by making the Cratchit family more depressed, for instance, My little, little child! Cried Bob. My little child! He broke down all at once. This makes the reader feel sympathy for the Cratchits and anger towards Scrooge, as he did not help a poor family at need. Also, it makes Scrooge feel terrible and he realises that he must change his ways and become a better person, to stop these perceptions from happening. Stave four is a particularly religious section of the book, as it deals with Scrooges redemption and moral reformation. The language used by Dickens is similar to that used in a religious teaching, for example: Oh cold, cold, rigid, dreadful death, set up thine altar here. This biblical language is meant to make us aware that as readers we are being taught a moral lesson. All Christians believed strongly in heaven and hell; the thought of spending the rest of eternity in hell, frightened most Christians, so even the meanest of people would consider changing their ways to go to heaven. In stave five, Scrooge awakens on Christmas day as a changed man. He buys the largest turkey in town and donates it to the Cratchits. Ill send it to Bob Cratchits! This shows that Scrooge has finally reformed and he is now a better man, as he is being a lot more generous. Dickens shows that Scrooge has learnt his moral lessons and is not going back to his old ways, he does this by this continual joy, care and generosity, throughout the character of Scrooge in stave five, for example: Heres the turkey. Hallo! Whoop! How are you! Merry Christmas! This again emphasises that Scrooge has realised and acknowledged his faults and changed them; plus he donates lots of money to the poor, Scrooge says, not a farthing less This once more shows Scrooges generosity, the poor and the two gentlemen were very grateful. He also celebrates a lovely Christmas with his nephew; Dickens shows this by saying, Wonderful party, wonderful games, wonderful unanimity, won-der-ful happiness This stresses the changes Scrooge has made and that he is having a magnificent time with his family, at last. The next morning Scrooge was at his office ready to meet Bob Cratchit and give him a pay rise, he says Ill raise your salary, and endeavour to assist your struggling family And thats exactly what Scrooge did, he did not just raise Bobs salary, but he became like a second father to Tiny Tim, who did not die. There are many references to heaven in this stave such as: I am as happy as an angel, He went to church and God bless us, every one! in contrast to the references to hell when he was parsimonious, mean-spirited and had a cold heart, for instance, It is doomed to wander through the world , ages of incessant labour by immortal creatures, for this earth must pass eternity and dark master! This creates the impression that Scrooge was going to hell in stave one because he was stingy, cruel and uncharitable. Dickens teaches a social lesson to us, near the end of the book, so we remember it. He tells us not to worry if people laugh at the sudden change in you as long as you are doing good deeds that is all that matters, for instance, Some people laughed to see the alteration in him, but he let them laugh His own heart laughed: and that was quite enough for him. This puts emphasis on Scrooges reformation and confirms that Scrooge has changed for the better and for good. A Christmas Carol is an inverted tragedy, since it has five staves similar to the five acts of a Shakespeare play; but Scrooge begins a cold-hearted, cruel, spiteful and uncharitable and ends a loving, caring generous man with a stronger, warmer heart, especially to the poor and needy. Through the character of Scrooge, Dickens hoped to change the views of society by showing the rich people, who would have read the book that they were Scrooge (not sharing their wealth; being grumpy and cold-hearted). It reflects that money does not lead to happiness, but living a high-quality Christian, moral life does. As the book continues on, Scrooge becomes more and more enthusiastic to learn his moral lessons, for example: As I know your purpose is to do me good, and as I hope to live to be another man from what I was This shows his eagerness to gain knowledge of his moral and social lessons and his acceptance of his faults. Christianity was a vast issue in the 1840s, and the idea of burning in hell would have made a lot of people change their miserable, tight-fisted ways. This Christian theme is set throughout the book and if you repent your ways you will be saved (go to heaven). Dickens uses Christmas because it is an occasion when generosity, exuberance and affection should be in our hearts as a time to convey this message of charity.

Incentives For Blue And White Collar Workers

Incentives For Blue And White Collar Workers The term incentive has been used both in the restricted sense of participation and in the widest sense of financial motivation. The concept of incentive implies increased willingness or motivation to work and not the capacity to work. It refers to all the plans that provide extra pay for extra performance in addition to regular wages for a job. Under this programme, the income of an individual, a small group, a plant work-force or all the employees of a firm are partially or wholly related to some measure of productive output. Wage incentives are extra financial motivation. They are designed to stimulate human effort by rewarding the person, over and above the time-rated remuneration, for -improvements in the present or targeted results. Basically, the wage incentive implies a system of payment under which the amount payable to a person is linked with his output. Such a payment may also be called payment by results. MEANING AND DEFINITION Incentives are monetary benefits paid to workmen in recognition of their outstanding performance. An incentive scheme is a plan or programmes to motivate individual or group performance. An incentive programme is most frequently built on monetary rewards (incentive pay or monetary bonus), but may also include a variety of non-monetary rewards or prizes. The International Labour Organisation (ILO) refers to incentives as payment by results but it is appropriate to call them incentive systems of payment emphasising the point of motivation that is the imparting of incentives to workers for higher production and productivity. Unlike wages and salaries which are relatively fixed, incentives generally vary from individual to individual, and from period to period for the same individual. CLASSIFICATION OF INCENTIVES Incentives can be classified into: (i) direct compensation, and (ii) indirect compensation. Direct compensation includes the basic salary or wage that the individual is entitled to for his job, overtime-work and holiday premium, bonuses based on performance, profit sharing and opportunities to purchase stock options, etc. Indirect compensation includes protection programmes (insurance plans, pensions), pay for time not worked, services and perquisites. Also incentives may broadly be classified into monetary and non-monetary. Monetary incentives have an important contribution to make within the total motivation pattern. They provide extra-financial motivation, by rewarding the worker over and above his regular remuneration for performing more than the targeted work. Some of the financial motivations are overtime wages, higher basic wages, incentive bonus, merit increments, suggestion rewards; various allowances, promotion and fringe benefits. Some of the non-financial incentives are good human relations, self-respect, recognition, status, sense of belonging, appreciation, higher responsibility, greater authority, job satisfaction, improved working conditions, greater leisure, etc. All these motivate workers to raise their productivity. ILO classifies incentive schemes into four categories: (i) schemes in which earnings vary in proportion to output, (ii) schemes where earnings vary proportionately less than output, (iii) schemes where earnings vary proportionately more than output, and (iv) schemes where earnings differ at different levels of output. Incentives have also been classified into individual, group and organisation-wide. In an individual incentive plan, the rewards of incentives are based solely on individual performance. It is the extra compensation paid to an individual over a specified amount for his production effort. Such a system is feasible only where an individual can increase the quantity and quality of his output by his own individual efforts and where his output can be measured. The payment is normally on a monthly basis, though in a few cases it may be quarterly or other convenient periods. The standards of performance have been set by a qualified industrial engineering analyst, using technically sound work measurement procedures. The rewards under this plan are almost always immediate, that is, paid daily or weekly. The advantages of individual wage incentive plans are relatively obvious and straightforward. First and foremost, the individual incentive plan rewards the individual for his or her production. The more the worker produces, the more the worker earns. Second, the individual incentives appeal to the basic need for money found in most people. Almost everyone will work harder, up to a point, when there is a justifiable reason to believe that increased productivity will bring about a personal gain. Although individual wage incentives have advantages, there are also limitations. Individual wage incentives work best with jobs that are primarily operator-controlled. They may also lead to labour problems. Incentives, because they reward production levels, can lead to quality problems. Safeguards must be taken to ensure that quality is not sacrificed for quantity. It is the output of the group rather than that of each individual member of the group that can be measured most conveniently or accurately. Group or area incentive schemes provide for the payment of a bonus either equally or proportionately to individuals within a group or area. The bonus is related to the output achieved over an agreed standard or to the time saved on the job the difference between allowed time and actual time. Such schemes may be most appropriate: (a) where people have to work together and team work has to be encouraged; and (b) where high levels of production depend a great deal on the co-operation existing among a team of workers as compared with the individual efforts of team members. Group bonuses are calculated on the basis of the output of the team and are divided among the members either equally or in specified proportions, with more being given to skilled employees than to those who are unskilled. Group incentives are usually applied to small teams and the rewards are based on the performance of the entire group. The bonuses are often much larger than individual wage incentives. Group incentiv e plans, since they evaluate overall performance, are applicable to a wide variety of tasks. Sometimes, however, they are applied to all workers of a department or even of a whole undertaking. One of the disadvantages of group incentive plan is that there is a possibility of ignoring the individual performance as the rewards are based on group performance. In large groups it is often inevitable that there will be slackers who can disrupt the functioning of the whole group. Some of the advantages of group incentive plans are: Better co-operation among workers Less supervision Reduced incidence of absenteeism Reduced clerical work Shorter training time. The disadvantages of group incentive plans are: An efficient worker may be penalised for the inefficiency of the other members in the group The incentive may not be strong enough to serve its purpose Rivalry among the members of the group defeats the very purpose of team work and cooperation. The organisation-wide incentive system involves co-operation and collective effort of the employees and management in order to accomplish broader organisational objectives, such as: (i) to reduce labour, material and supply costs; (ii) to decrease turnover and absenteeism; (iii) to strengthen employee loyalty to the company; (iv) to promote harmonious labour management relations. One of the aspects of the scheme is profit-sharing under which an employee receives a share of the profit fixed in advance under an agreement freely entered into. Some of the advantages of such a scheme are: (i) it inculcates in employees a sense of economic discipline as regards wage costs and productivity; (ii) it engenders improved communication and increased sense of participation; (iii) it is relatively simple and its cost of administration is low; and (iv) it is non-inflationary, if properly devised. MERITS AND DEMERITS Everything has its merits and demerits. In the same way incentive has also some advantages and disadvantages. MERITS 1. Motivation: The primary advantage of incentives is the inducement and motivation of workers for higher efficiency and greater output. It may not be difficult to get people for fixed wages and salaries. 2. Removes fear of Insecurity: With fixed remuneration, it is difficult to motivate workers to give better performance. Fixed remuneration removes fear of insecurity in the minds of employees. 3. Improves Standard of Living: Earnings of employees would be enhanced due to incentives. There are instances where incentive earnings exceed two to three times that of the time rated wages or salaries. Increased earnings would enable the employees to improve their standard of living. 4. Increase in Productivity: There will be reduction in the total as well as per unit of cost of production through incentives. Productivity would increase resulting in greater number of units produced for given inputs. This would bring down the total and unit cost of production. The production capacity is also likely to increase. The other advantages of incentive payments are: reduced supervision, better utilisation of equipment, reduced scrap; reduced lost time, reduced absenteeism and turnover and increased output. Furthermore, systems of payment by results would, if accompanied by organisation and work measurement, enable firms to estimate labour costs more accurately, than under the system of payment by time. This would facilitate the application of cost control techniques like standard costing and budgetary control. On the other hand, systems of payment by results may have disadvantages. There is a tendency for the quality of products to deteriorate unless steps are taken to ensure maintenance of quality through checking and inspection. This involves added expenses. Difficulties may arise over the introduction of new machines or methods. Workers may oppose such introduction for fear that new piece of bonus rates set may yield lower earnings; or when new machines or methods are introduced, they may slacken their rate of work. Another disadvantage is that jealousies may arise among workers because some are able to earn more than others. One of the greatest difficulties with the incentive systems is in the setting of piece or bonus rates. Rate fixing involves delicate problems of judgment in which there is always a risk of error. If rates are set too low, workers are bound to be dissatisfied and will be under pressure to work very hard. If rates are set too high, workers may slacken their efforts at times and employers may not take recourse to revision of rates because the earnings are too high. Difficulty also arises in determining standard performance. Many organisations follow a safe route to fix the standards which is usually the average of past years performance. Past performance may not be the ideal basis for fixing production norms. Most of the problems of financial incentives arise either from the inadequacies of the particular system or from incorrect application and insufficient control. In western countries, as also in India, it has now been realised that economic gain has ceased to be a source of motivation and that greater emphasis should be placed on non- economic factors. Many empirical researchers have shown that monetary incentives alone do not bring about the desired motivation. PRE-REQUIS1TES OF EFFECTIVE INCENTIVE SCHEME All things considered, it may be concluded that in many industries or undertakings and for a large group of operations, well designed systems of payment by results shall yield advantages to all concerned. Many of these advantages will be realised provided sufficient safeguards are provided. Such pre-requisites are: The co-operation of workers in the implementation of an incentive scheme is essential. In particular, workers co-operation is necessary wherein: (a) the methods followed in measuring the results or output upon which payment is based; (b) the methods followed in setting wage rates for different classes of work; and (c) appropriate safeguards concerning earnings, job security and settlement of disputes over piece-work rates and allotted time. The scheme must be based on scientific work measurement. The standards set must be realistic and must motivate workers to put in better performance. Workers must be provided with necessary tools, equipments and materials so as to enable them reach their standards. Indirect workers, such as foremen, supervisors, charge hands, helpers, crane operators, canteen staff, store keepers, and clerical staff should also be covered by the incentive schemes. There should be management commitment to the cost and time necessary to administer incentive schemes properly, and these must be carefully assessed before go on an incentive programme. There is greater need for planning. Many incentive schemes, started hurriedly, planned carelessly, and implemented indifferently have failed and have created more problems for the organisation than they have tried to solve. INCENTIVE SYSTEMS Some of major incentive systems are as follows: 1. The Halsey System: This system which was developed by F.A. Halsey. He provides this system for the fixation of a standard time for the completion of the task. For the work done in correct time or more, the actual time rate is paid. Thus, the minimum wage is guaranteed even if the output falls below the standard. If the job is completed in less than the standard time, the worker receives a bonus payment at his time rate for a specific percentage of the time saved. This percentage may vary anywhere from 30 percent to 70 percent, but usually it is fixed at 50 percent (the other 50 percent going to the share of employer). Thus, if a worker does the work in 6 hours against that of 10 hours standard, he gets bonus after 6 hours plus 50 percent of 4 hours, i.e., 2 hours, as bonus. The other 50 percent (2 hours) is shared by the employer. Bonus= Â ½ of Time Saved/ Time Taken* Daily Wage 2. The Rowan System: Under this system also a standard time is allowed for a job, and bonus is similarly paid for any time saved. This plan differs from the Halsey plan only in regard to the determination of the bonus. In all other respects, the two are the same. The premium is calculated on the basis of the proportion which the time saved bears at standard time. Thus, if a worker does work in 6 hours against the 10-hour standard, the wage payable is 6 hours wages plus 40 percent of the wages as bonus. Bonus= Â ½ of Time Saved/ Time Allowed *Time Taken* Hourly Rate 3. The Bedaux Point System: Under this system, the standard time set is divided into a number of points at the rate of one minute per point. The bonus is calculated at 75 percent of the points earned in excess of 60 per hour. Thus, if the standard time is 10 hours and if the worker completes the job in 7 hours and if his hourly rate is 0.96 money units, the standard number of points for completing the job is 600 points. The worker thus earns 600 points in 7 hours. His bonus, therefore, will be 75 percent of 180 x 0.96/60 which is equal to 2.16 money units. If a worker does not reach the standard, he is paid at his time rate. This system is really more than the incentive system, since it enables the management to record the output of any worker of the department in units which show at once if the production is up to the standard the management desires. 4. The Taylor Differential Piece-rate System: This system was introduced by Taylor with two objectives. First, is to give sufficient incentive to workmen to induce them to produce up to their full capacity and Second, to remove the fear of wage cut. There is one rate for those who reach the standard; they are given a higher rate to enable them to get the bonus. The other is the lower rate for those who are below the standard; so that the hope of receiving a higher rate may serve as an incentive to come up to the standard. Workers are expected to do certain units of work within a certain period of time. This standard is determined on the basis of time and motion studies. Such scientific determination assumes that the standard fixed is not unduly high and is within the easy reach of workers. A proper determination of the standard depend the success of the scheme. This system is designed to encourage the especially efficient worker with a higher rate of payment and to penalise the ineff icient by a lower rate of payment. In practice, this plan is seldom used now. 5. Premium and Task Bonuses: It has been devised by Gantt and is the only one that pays a bonus percentage multiplied by the standard time. Under this system, fixed time rate are guaranteed. Output standards and time standards are established for the performance of each job. Workers completing the job within the standard time or in less time receive wages for the standard time plus a bonus which ranges from 20 percent to 50 percent of the time allowed and not time saved. When a worker fails to turn out the required quantity of a product, he simply gets his time rate without any bonus. Its fairness and practical value depends on the reasonableness of the standard fixed and the wages which workers of average ability can earn without having to work at excessive speed and becoming unduly fatigued. 6. The Profit-sharing System: The profit-sharing scheme is based on the same principle as the group system where incentive is related to the collective effort of the group. It is a system freely entered into under which an employer gives to his employees a share the net profits of the enterprise, fixed in advance, in addition to their wages. The essential features of profit-sharing are: (a) that the arrangement is voluntary but based on an agreement between employer and employee; (b) that the amount to be distributed amongst the participants depend upon the profits earned by the enterprise; and (c) that the, proportion of the profits to be distributed is determined well in advance. The aims of profit-sharing plans are: (i) to promote increased effort and output; (ii) to share some gains in the productivity of the firm; (iii) to secure employee co-operation and to achieve industrial harmony; and (d) to strengthen unity of interest and employee loyalty to organisational objectives. The profit-sharing scheme is comparatively easy and less expensive to adopt. In some cases, these schemes have become successful resulting in increased production at a lower cost. There are cases where they have not made any significant contribution towards improving the overall efficiency of the company. To be effective, profit-sharing schemes should be based on the considerations of profitability of industrial units, computation of surplus profit for distribution on an average basis, and fair return on capital invested in an enterprise. It should not be treated as a substitute for adequate wages but provide something extra to the participants. Full support and co-operation of the union is to be obtained in implementing such a scheme. Since the Second World War, profit-sharing has generally grown in importance, especially in those countries which have adopted legislative measures promoting or requiring its use. Thus, in the late 1970s, approximately 310,000 profit- sharing plans were in operation in the United States covering about 9 million wage-earners, or roughly 10 percent of the employed labour force. Mandatory profit-sharing schemes have been introduced in a number of developing countries. Some voluntarily introduced profit-sharing schemes have continued in the United Kingdom for 40 or 50 years. 7. The Scanlon Plan: It is a plant-wide incentive scheme developed by Joseph Scanlon of the United Steelworkers of America in 1927. The basic concept underlying the Scanlon Plan is that efficiency depends upon plant-wide co-operation. The purpose of this incentive plan is to develop teamwork. It has two main aspects: (a) adopting a measure for increased productivity; and (b) sharing the gain accrued from that increased productivity. The objective of the plan is to devise the formula which will most adequately reflect the prospective efforts of workers and management as a whole. The bonus formula is devised to fit the particular operating conditions of the plant. Some of the salient features of the plan are: (a) it encourages group work; (b) there is high flexibility in the generation of decisions and execution of the plan; (c) it integrates the companys objectives with group activity; (d) it involves all the workers in the exercise and they make their maximum personal contribution to the process of production. Earnest Dale has described four degrees of co-operation between labour and management in the Scanlon Plan, namely: (a) information co-operation by gathering information; (b) advisory co-operation through the process of consultation; (c) constructive co-operation by making suggestions for improvement; and (d) joint union-management decision making. Although there have been remarkable successes with the Scanlon Plan, not all applications have worked. Most of the successful applications have been in relatively small plants, one hundred employees or less. The Scanlon Plan seeks to provide the highest order of incentives to the workers by inviting them to offer suggestions and to share decisions with the management for improving productivity and moulding work incentives. 8. The Rucker Plan: The philosophy of the Rucker Plan is similar to the Scanlon Plan, but the bonus computed is based on a more sophisticated basis. There are two major differences between the two plans. The standard under the Rucker Plan is based upon a careful study of accounting records and is not considered bargainable. While the Scanlon Plan rewards only savings in labour costs, the Rucker Plan offers incentives for savings in other areas as well. 9. Merit Rating: Method may be made of merit rating as a form of wage incentive. It presupposes that the workers in a given grade or occupation differ in their efficiency at work in the undertaking. Merit rating is a method of attempting to give recognition to the best Workers by systematic objective standards. Various qualities are listed, such as skill, efficiency, reliability, initiative, care in avoiding accidents, adaptability, co-operation with other workers, and regularity of attendance. Points or gradings are given for each of these qualities, and workers who reach a high level receive an addition to the normal rate of pay for the job. Rating may be done for each year, and workers who had been receiving merit pay may lose a part or whole of it if they do not maintain their rating. Merit rating is usually applied to time- workers, especially in occupations where opportunities for promotion are less. Merit rating should not be confused with job evaluation. Job evaluation is an attempt to measure the worth of the job, irrespective of who does it, while merit rating is an attempt to measure the performance of the individual. WAGE INCENTIVE PLANS Wage incentive plans may be discussed as (i) plans for blue-collar workers (ii) plans for white-collar workers and (iii) plans for managerial personnel. Each of these categories of employees have separate and distinct needs and hence specific tailor- made incentive plans have to be devised to meet their requirements. Therefore, correct measurement of performance for the purpose of incentive payment is very important. The four critical performance indices are: (a) the standard index (b) the reference index (c) the base index and (d) the incentive index. Various wage incentive schemes are formulated on the basis of these indices. 1. INCENTIVE PLANS FOR BLUE COLLAR WORKERS: Short-term incentive plans for blue collar workers may be broadly classified into three categories: (a) Plans under which the rate of extra incentive is in proportion to the extra output; (b) Plans under which the extra incentive is proportionately at a lower rate than the increase in output; (c) Plans under which the rate of incentives is proportionately higher than the rate of increase in output. Every employer wants his workman to do the maximum work they are capable of doing. On the other hand, there is a feeling among the workers that an increasing effort benefits only the employer even when they are employed on a piece-rate basis. The result is that they never produce to their full capacity, and, in most cases, put in the minimum necessary work. This feeling on the part of workers may be removed either through fear or through expectation of gain, it has been found that fear can never produce the desired effect, but a hope of earning a bonus does induce them to work harder and produce more. Incentive plans are, therefore, known as premium plans because they offer a premium for outstanding performance. All bonus or premium plans relate to two factors: one, they set a standard time for the completion of a definite output or piece of work for a fixed wage; two, the fixing of rate of percentage by which bonus would be earned by a worker over and above his set wage, if the standard time is saved or the standard output is exceeded. Indirect workers such as crane operators, charge hands, canteen staff, helpers, security staff, employees in purchasing, sales and accounts, and maintenance staff also deserve incentives at par with direct workers. Such payments are desirable to avoid dissatisfaction and dissension among the workers in a plant. The payment of bonus to indirect workers, however poses a serious problem because the output of many of them cannot be accurately measured. For example, it is extremely difficult to measure the output of maintenance staff, canteen employees, or security personnel, though it is possible to assess the performance of inspectors, sweepers and packers. Much management therefore, prefers to apply a merit rating system to indirect workers, which rewards these workers for other qualities, in addition to their output. 2. INCENTIVE PLANS FOR WHITE COLLAR EMPLOYEES/SALESMEN: The salesmen are usually given incentives in the form of sales commissions. One study reported that almost 75 % of the organisations surveyed paid salesmen on some type of incentive basis. This is due to three factors: (i) the unsupervised nature of most sales work; (ii) tradition in the market; and (iii) the assumption that incentives are needed to motivate salesmen. There are several incentive plans for sales staff each appropriate for different markets, products, but all plans are basically variations of three types of plans: straight salary, straight commission, and combination plans. The straight salary method is not an incentive plan; the salesman is simply paid on weekly, monthly, or on yearly basis. The advantages of this method are that: (i) the salesmen know in advance what their income will be; and (ii) the expenditure on salesmen is known beforehand. The disadvantages are: (i) this method tend to shift salesman emphasis to just making the sale rather than prospecting and cultivating long-term customer; and (iii) pay is not related to results. This lack of relationship reduces salesmens performance. Under the straight commission, the salesmen are paid on the basis of sales effected i.e., they are paid for results and only for results. Therefore, high performance salesmen are generally attracted. But the disadvantages are: (i) salesmen focus on making a sale on high volume items and as a result cultivating dedicated customers and working to push hard-to-sell items are often neglected; (ii) salesmen tend to .be less company-oriented and more money-oriented, and the company has less control over them; (iii) salesmens income generally fluctuates widely. Under the combination method of salary and commission, salesmen not only get a fixed salary but also a commission in proportion to the sales effected. The advantages of this method are: (i) since salesmen are assured of minimum earnings, they are relieved of financial worries; (ii) the company has more control over its salesmen, as there is sizable salary component in most combination plans. But the main disadvantage is that salary is not related to performance; only incentive value of money is being traded off for its security value. Incentives for Management Employees: In many organisations, the managers are paid bonus. There are two types of bonus plans: one determined by formula (i.e. some criteria like increased sales) and the other determined by some discretion used in allocation of bonus (i.e., paid on more or less permanent basis). The bonus plans are generally reviewed annually to make them more effective. For top level management, bonuses are generally tied to overall corporate results. The size of bonus is much higher for top level executives and lower for the lower level executives. At the top management level, incentive payments are mostly in the form of bonuses which are usually a percentage of base salary that depends upon the level of performance and company profits. Mostly bonuses are paid in cash but in some cases the company may use stock plans that offer the executive the companys stock at a fixed purchase price. Such plans are designed to encourage ownership in the company and indirectly serve as an incentive for good work and represent a form of saving. In the manufacturing and retailing fields, where year-to-year results are largely a reflection of management performance, it is common for executive and managerial personnel to be compensated partly in the form of a base salary and partly in the form of a year-end bonus. The decision of whether to install an incentive bonus plan for executives and, if so, what kind of plan to install should be made appropriately. On the one hand, a bonus is a more immediate and flexible form of compensation than salary and thus has greater motivational potential. On the other hand, the bonus plan that is poorly conceived or administered can have a negative motivational impact. If a bonus plan seems appropriate, careful attention should be paid to what kind of plan would be most effective. WORKING OF INCENTIVE SCHEMES Incentive schemes are regarded as beneficial to both employers and workers. They are accepted as a sound technique for the achievement of greater productivity and good performance. The main advantage of any wage incentive scheme is that for a little expenditure of capital, there can be sizable gains in productivity; the gestation period is also small. The workers chase the supervisors for material, tools, etc., instead of supervisors chasing the workers. The experience gained in India and in other countries indicates that wage incentives have resulted in raising productivity, increasing output and earnings, reducing direct labour costs, and curtailing absenteeism. Despite certain merits of incentive schemes, their actual working is not quite happy. Some critics point out that the output of modern industry does not depend so much on individual human effort as on the capacity of machines and on good organisation. The most effective incentive, they claim, is a combination of good regular wages, good working conditions, and good human relations. There is a tendency for the quality of the products to deteriorate unless steps are taken to ensure the maintenance of quality through a stricter system of checking and inspection. Their application in some cases has not only failed to increase production over a period of time but has caused an actual reduction in employee productivity. One company, for instance, found that a substantial increase in pay through wage incentive systems merely resulted in higher absenteeism, restricted output and lower work standards. Some studie

Applications of 3D Printing Technology

Applications of 3D Printing Technology Lara Soueid Abstract What if we could simply print a bone when we have a shattered one? This has now become possible due to the three-dimensional (3D) printing innovation. 3D technology In our days, technology is advancing at a very rapid pace. Out of the many recent innovations is the three dimensional (3D) technology. It has been exploited in various industries such as the movie production, television, computers, and printers industries. This technology has just recently been introduced into the medical field, more specifically, the 3D printers (Walker A, 2013). There are various medical applications of the 3D printers; some of these are to print prosthetic limbs, and implants. So far, there are many advantages, yet also a few disadvantages to the latter. The three dimensional technology relies on the fact that we see things in 3D by our eyes in our daily, that is we visualize objects by their width, length and depth (3deyehealth.org June12, 2014). The process by which our eyes perceive three dimensional images from two highly similar overlaid images was first described by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838 (Sniderman Z, 2011). Another name for 3D is stereoscopy; it explains how our eyes and our brain create an impression of a third dimension. Our eyes are approximately 50-75mm apart, hence each eye perceives a slightly different image which the brain merges using some high powered geometry which is basically the 3D concept (Sniderman Z, 2011). Modern 3D technology is trying to replicate what the brain does to merge the images. This technology tricks the brain in order to perceive two different images from the same source (Wong KV, Hernandez A, 2012).There are multiple uses of the 3D technology, mainly architecture, the movie industry, printing and gaming (Sniderman Z, 2011). 3D printing has recently been on the rise, these machines are able to make anything from simple materials. By doing so they replace traditional factory production lines and make everything in life much easier, a person can easily print a cup or chair, or even a house (Walker A, 2013). 3D printing technologies There are various 3D printing technologies being used, namely selective laser sintering (SLS), fused deposition modeling (FDM) and stereolithography (SLA) (Pravas VS, 2013). The SLS printers use a very powerful laser in order to heat and bind the printing material into the required 3D object by scanning the cross sections generated from the 3D digital file. When each cross section is scanned, the powder bed is automatically lowered one layer thickness and new material is placed above it. The object is surrounded and supported by the same powder it is made from. This process is repeated until the object is complete (Deckard C, Beaman J, Bourell D, 2012). Figure 1: Selective Laser Sintering process, Martello.co.uk, June 12, 2014. The second type is the FDM printers, these printers use a process by which thick filaments are melted and forced through a heated nozzle which forms the object. Once the first layer is formed, the base is lowered and the second layer begins forming and fusing with the first layer. However unlike the SLS, these printers require two different materials, the thick filaments in order to make the object and a support material which surrounds and supports the object while it is being made (Deckard et al., 2012). Figure 2: Fused Deposition Modeling process, 3dprinterplans.info, June 12, 2014. The last type of printers are the SLA printers, these printers use liquid photopolymer resin as the basic material. Photopolymers are materials that are sensitive to light, once exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, they will immediately harden. The UV laser beam traces a cross section of the object onto the resin, which immediately curs when it is exposed to the light (3ders.org, March 14, 2013). The base then lowers and the top is coated with more resin which again gets exposed to UV light hence hardens and mends to the lower layer. This process is repeated until the object is completed (Deckard et al., 2012). Figure 3: Stereolithography printing process. Pravas VS, 2013. The latter are all additive manufacturing processes which require the help of computers. The 3D object blueprint to be printed must first be modeled three dimensionally on a computer software, most commonly using the computer aided design (CAD) software. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), as well as computed tomography (CT) scan can also be used (Pravas VS, 2013). The CAD file is converted into a Standard Tessellation Language (STL) file which transforms the geometry into small triangles, a header, or a triplet list of x, y and z coordinates. This file is then sliced into cross sections exactly as the printer will print, this file is called a G-Code file which can now be directly interpreted by the printer (Wong KV, Hernandez A, 2012). Table 1: Comparison of 3D printing processes. (3dprinteplans.info, June 12, 2014) There are various applications to 3D printing, such as architecture, automotive, engineering, fashion and numerous others. However the most important applications are the use of 3D printers in medicine to produce implants and prosthetics (3dprinterplans.info, 2014, June 12). Throughout the world, poverty is increasing and living costs as well as the medical costs are also increasing. A prosthetic arm for an amputee would cost on average $3,000 to $30,000 depending on the patient’s age, activities, profession and his health hence making it impossible for anyone except the rich population to be able to buy a prosthetic arm or foot (Turner R, 2009). Lucky for the third world countries people, as well as the middle class people, a novel technology will solve the latter issue. The innovation of the 3D printers has and will change many lives. The process of printing a prosthetic hand relies on the FDM technology. The material used is most often high-performance thermoplastics which are biocompatible, and the average price of a 3D printed prosthetic arm is about $200 (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12). The 3D production of prosthetics is not only cheaper, faster and more practical, it is a revolution which allows every amputee of living a normal life again. The main problem in producing a prosthetic arm or leg is the need of a blueprint or prototype. The patient’s limb is scanned using a CT scanner or a laser-based scanner, this image is then converted into a G-Code file which can be directly printed by the printer in order to produce a new very similar limb (Andrews TM, 2013). There was also a problem of printing the socket (the part that will be attached to the amputated limb) accurately (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12). However this has all been solved by the open end prototypes and blueprints available for everyone to use (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12). Sydney Kendall is a thirteen year old girl from St.Louis, her right arm was amputated due to a boating accident when she was six years old. Senior students in the Washington University in St.Louis studying biomedical engineering printed a prosthetic arm using plastic as the raw material for Sydney. The total cost was only $200. This prosthetic is powered by a battery and controlled by an accelerometer allowing her to move her prosthetic fingers (Washington University in St.Louis Newsroom [WUSTL], 2014). The most recent 3D printed prosthetic hand is the â€Å"Flexy-hand†, produced by Gyrobot Ltd by Steve Wood. This prosthetic arm looks very similar to a natural human hand and it operates like one too. He has used Filaflex flexible filaments which form tendons that are activated by a motor that allows the prosthetic hand to operate very much like a normal human hand. (Krassenstein E, 2014) Maxillofacial prosthetics are also being produced by 3D printers. Usually the conventional maxillofacial prosthetics production requires that an impression from the trauma site is taken, then a plaster positive should be formed, a mould should be made and the specific shape must be carved in the wax, lastly it must be casted in silicone. This is very laborious, time consuming and expensive to be done. Using the 3D technology, the patient’s face should be 3D-scanned, this image will then be converted to the appropriate file to print the perfectly fitting prosthetic part (Wainwright O, 2014, June 12). 3D-printed titanium shoulder and collar bone implants were successfully implanted into three different patients suffering from cancerous bone tumors in Xi’an, China. The bone design was printed using the selective laser sintering technique which fused titatium powder into the exact shape of the patient’s bone. The implants do not cause infections and are very durable and resistant (Zeng C, 2014). This has also been done in the United Kingdom for a cancer patient (Moore G, 2014). Soon, 3D printing will replace manufacturing industries and save millions of lives. Various kinds of implants such as knee caps, skulls, auditory devices, and jaw bones have already been produced by a 3D printer and have successfully been implanted. There are 2 astonishing cases whose patients have been given a second chance to live due to 3D printers. The first case is Stephen Power, he is a survivor of a motorbike accident that shattered his face. His face was reconstructed at Morrison Hospital in Swansea, however, his entire face was reconstructed using custom made 3D printed models, plates, implants and guides. The surgical team used CT scans to create symmetrical 3D models of Power’s skull which they then printed, implanted, and held in place using a printed titanium implant (Griffith H, 2014). The second case is of a 22 year old woman from the Netherlands who had her skull replaced by a 3D printed skull implant. She suffered from a chronic bone disorder which increases the thickness of her skull, neurosurgeons at the University Medical Centre Utrecht pr inted a perfectly fitting durable plastic skull implant (University Medical Center Utrecht [UMCU] research news, 2014). Dr.Bon Verweij of the UMCU says: â€Å"Its now three months after the operation. The patient has fully regained her vision, she has no more complaints, shes gone back to work and there are almost no traces that she had any surgery at all. The printing process of prosthetics and implants requires hours to a few days maximum. There aren’t any documented reactions to the prosthesis or implants, they are cheaper, more durable, more resistant, less laborious and they are FDA approved (Pollack SK, Coburn J, 2013). However the main disadvantage is the expensive price of the printer and the designing program. Most prototypes are open ended and available online for modification and many hospitals and universities now have 3D printers (Stratasys Ltd, 2014, June 12). With the increasing popularity and availability of 3D printers, we are finally ableto create prosthetics and implants under $1000. Even though alternative production methods are present, they are not available to the people that need them most due to their high cost. They are cheap, fast, References 3deyehealth organization team. Seeing in 3D. Retrieved June 12, 2014, from www.3deyehealth.org 3dprinterplans team. (2014, May 6). How To 3D Print – Beginner’s Guide To 3D Printing. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://3dprinterplans.info/how-to-3d-print-beginners-guide-to-3d-printing/ Andrews TM. (2013, August 23). Can we really 3D print limbs for amputees? The atlantic magazine. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/08/can-we-really-3-d-print-limbs-for-amputees/278987/ Deckard C, Beaman J, Bourell D. (2012, December 7). [Interviews in the University of Texas]. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.me.utexas.edu/news/2012/0712_sls_history.php#ch4. Griffith H. (2014, March 12). Pioneering 3D printing reshapes patient’s face in Wales. BBC news. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-26534408 Krassenstein E. (2014, March 10). The Flexy-Hand – The Most Innovative, Useful, Realistic Looking 3D Printed Prosthetic Hand Yet. 3D print blog. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://3dprint.com/1500/the-flexy-hand-3d-printed-prosthetic/ Moore G. (2014, February 11). Surgeons have implanted a 3-D printed pelvis into a U.K. cancer patient. Fierce Medical Devices Newsletter. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.fiercemedicaldevices.com/story/surgeons-have-implanted-3-d-printed-pelvis-uk-cancer-patient/2014-02-11 Pollack SK, Coburn J. (2013, August 15). FDA goes 3-D. FDA voice. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://blogs.fda.gov/fdavoice/index.php/2013/08/fda-goes-3-d/ Pravas VS. (2013). 3D Printing – ‘Modern Manufacturing Rapid Prototyping’. Engineers Garage. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.engineersgarage.com/articles/what-is-3d-printing-modern-manufacturing-and-rapid-prototyping?page=1 Scheineder Prototyping Limited members. Rapid Prototyping Stereolithography (SLA) Models. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.martello.co.uk/rapid_prototyping.htm Sniderman Z. (2011, February 07). How Does 3D Technology Work? The Innovative Entertainment Series – Dolby. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://mashable.com/2011/02/07/how-does-3d-work/ Stratasys limited. FDM technology case studies. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.stratasys.com/resources/case-studies/medical Turner R. (2009, May 30). Prosthetics costs. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.disabled-world.com/assistivedevices/prostheses/prosthetics-costs.php University Medical Center Utrecht newsroom. (2014, March 27). University Medical Center Utrecht – Netherlands. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.umcutrecht.nl/research/news/2014/03/3d-printed-skull-implanted-in-patient.htm Wainwright O. Faces to order: how 3D printing is revolutionizing prosthetics. The guardian. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/architecture-design-blog/2013/nov/08/faces-3d-printing-prosthetics Walker A. (2013, June 21). 3D printing for dummies: How do 3D printers work? The independent newspaper. Retrieved 2014, June 12 from http://www.independent.co.uk/ Washington University in St.Louis Newsroom. ( 2014, May 7). WUSTL students print pink prosthetic arm for teen girl. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://news.wustl.edu/news/Pages/26901.aspx Wong KV, Hernandez A.( 2012). A Review Of Additive Manufacturing. ISRN Mechanical Engineering. Volume 2012. Article ID 208760. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://dx.doi.org/10.5402/2012/208760. Zeng C. (2014, June 3). In China, world’s first successful 3D-printed shoulder and collar bone implants. 3ders organization newsroom. Retrieved 2014, June 12, from http://www.3ders.org/articles/20140603-in-china-world-first-successful-3d-printed-shoulder-and-collar-bone-implants.html

History of Paper -- essays research papers

The first historical mention of paper is 104 A.D. in China. The Empress of China at that time loved books and wanted to have a lot of them made. At the time everything was written on silk scrolls which were extremely expensive and time consuming to make. She wanted something cheaper and easier to use and so she asked one of her servants, a gentleman by the name of Tsi Lun to come up with an alternative. He worked for over nine years experimenting with different things and finally came up with hemp, mulberry tree bark, silk and old fishing nets all ground up into a mushy pulp. I wonder how he ever thought of it; the history books don't say. The Empress was very pleased and Tsi Lun was elevated to a high rank in the court. Unfortunately for him, the Empress then asked Tsi Lun to spread malicious gossip about some of her enemies at court. When the Empress fell out of power, those people were extremely angry with Tsi Lun and he was either put to death or forced to commit suicide. Strange, isn't it, how things go in the world? And, of course, all of this that I am sharing with you is just one version of history. Others will perhaps be able to give a different rendering. I have read many. I like the story of Tsi Lun. Most people agree on that one. But, as for the spread of papermaking as an art, well, there are different stories told. To gather such accounts and compare them falls within the discipline of "Historiography", the history of the writing of history. (If you ever want to scamble your brains and loose all concept of the solidity of reality, just study the hisotry writing of history.) The following, I believe, is most likely closest to the truth. Papemmaking remained a secret Chinese art until around the year 700 A.D. when, during a war with China the Arab nations captured an entire town of papermakers and took them back to the middle east as prisoners where they were forced into labor making paper. The craft was learned a couple hundred years later by Westem Europeans during the Crusades. Curiously, the Church in Westem Europe initially banned the use of paper calling it a 'pagan art' believing that animal parchment was the only thing 'holy' enough to carry the Sacred Word. That strange prejudice lasted for more than 100 years, but they got over it. In the 17th century Europeans were making paper from cotton and linen rags. When paper is made ... ...which does not add to the pollution in the environment. Natural fiber paper makers have told me that they neutralize their caustic solutions with vinegar and baking soda. After the cooking process, once it is neutralized and checked with a litmus strip, the fiber cooking water can be disposed of down the drain without any fear of adding to the toxic waste in the environment, so there is hope.) The sad tale of our time period for the health of the eco system is that just as cotton and linen rags as sources for paper making were becoming scarce in the 17th century, trees in the 21st are also dissappearing. As an example, one single edition of the Sunday New York Times requires 30,000 acres of trees. And that's just the New York Times. What about the London Times? L.A. Times? And the millions of other papers printed around the world? Experiments have begun to find alternative sources of fiber and I have recently heard the European mills are turning toward hemp. Hemp yields 4 times the amount of cellulose fiber per acre than trees and is renewable within a year or two compared to 100 years for trees. As a lover of trees, I hope the rest of the world soon follows the European example.

The Body Essay -- Sexuality

The social and cultural conditions in which we live in today continue to perpetuate and maintain the rape culture that pervades our lives, especially for the lives of individual women. As a feminist thinker, Ann Cahill works to change this by challenging current definitions of rape as assault, and addressing questions of why rape exists in the first place, and how we can begin the prevention process. In Cahill’s book, â€Å"Rethinking Rape†, she approaches the subject of rape by analyzing the works of contemporary feminist theorists like Judith Butler, who perceive the female body as a potential site of resistance against gender-based oppression and a â€Å"larger system of sexual domination† (Cahill 32). Although each is addressing very different issues in feminist theory, Cahill does draw upon some of Butler’s ideas about the imitation and performance of gender in Butler’s essay â€Å"Imitation and Gender Insubordination.† Cahill does t his in order to further articulate her critique of â€Å"the body† and the role it plays in the phenomenon of rape â€Å"as an embodied experience of women† at the level of the individual (Cahill 109). There are certain concepts besides the performance of gender that both Authors touch on including â€Å"the body†, heterosexual norms as inhibitions to attaining liberation, the relationship between sexuality and gender, and the problematic nature of social constructs. By comparing and contrasting the works of Cahill and Butler, this paper will explore the importance and complexities of â€Å"the body†, the pivotal role it plays in Cahill’s critique of the phenomenon of rape, and how Butler’s critique of â€Å"coming out of the closet† values the notion of gender â€Å"performativity† more than the notion ofâ€Å"the body† itself. Before de... ... feminine body so we internalize that ideal and subject ourselves to the â€Å"intrusive, expensive, and high maintenance practices in order to be rendered beautiful† (Cahill 155). There are a number of factors that play into the perpetuation of rape culture, the hierarchy of gender, and gender performativity. The one thing they all have in common that is essential to understanding how men have been able to oppress us for so long and continue to oppress us. â€Å"The body† is the one thing that can maintain our inferiority and powerlessness, but it can also be the one thing that can free us from the same system of oppression. Works Cited Butler, Judith. "Imitation and Gender Insubordination." The Second Wave: A Reader in Feminist Theory. Ed. Linda Nicholson. New York: Routledge, 1997. 300-15. Print. Cahill, Ann J. Rethinking Rape. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 2001. Print.

Massachusetts Law

If guests harm themselves or others, after consuming alcoholic drinks at the host’s dwelling, then under certain circumstances, the host can be made responsible for such harm. The liability that arises can be either civil or criminal and the penalties imposed could range from imprisonment or community service to fines. In most of the States of the Union it has been deemed to be a crime to violate social host laws (Harvard College. Social Host Liability Law). The McGuiggan v. New England Tel case of Massachusetts discussed the question of social host liability. This case was based on incidents that transpired in the year 1978. Daniel the son of the McGuiggans had completed his high school studies successfully. In order to commemorate this occasion the McGuiggans held a party in which alcohol was served to the guests. Most of the guests were the classmates of Daniel and one of them, by the name of James Magee, who had   consumed alcoholic drinks before attending the party was offered some more drinks by the McGuiggans (McGuiggan v. New England Telephone and Telegraph, Co). After some time had elapsed, Daniel, Magee and two other guests went for a drive in a car. While travelling in this fashion, Daniel leaned out of the car window in order to vomit, whereupon his head collided with a cement post belonging to the New England Telephone company. The result injury proved to be fatal. Subsequently, the McGuiggans filed a case against the New England Telephone company. This company contended that the plaintiffs were liable for prosecution due to their being the social hosts of the drunken Magee. This was not accepted by the court, which decided in favor of the McGuiggans, because it could not be established that the McGuiggans were aware that Magee was drunk (McGuiggan v. New England Telephone and Telegraph, Co). The statute in this context was amended in the year 2000, consequent to the death of a drunken minor who had been involved in a fatal driving accident. The current legal position obtaining in this regard is that a parent who permits or condones the consumption of alcoholic drinks to minors is criminally liable. Hitherto fore, criminal liability was attendant only upon the actual offer of alcoholic drinks to a minor (Mass.Gen.Laws.ch.138). Since there has been no reduction in the number of cases involving drunken driving by minors, it would be extremely dangerous to make the law in respect of social host liability less stringent. The need of the hour is to make the punishment much more stringent and in addition, the offenders should also be made liable according to   the negligent per se standard, as is extant in some of the other States of the Union. Works Cited Harvard College. Social Host Liability Law. 30 September 2004. 28 September 2007 . â€Å"Mass.Gen.Laws.ch.138.† 2004. McGuiggan v. New England Telephone and Telegraph, Co. No. 398 Mass. 152 496 N.E.2d 141 . 1986.   

Religious participation Essay

Women are more likely to attend church, and more likely to say they belong to a church, therefore their religiosity emphasises commitment and membership (Jacklin 1970’s) however this point was criticised by early feminist who believe women also have a strong religious belief and its absurd to say their religiosity only extents to commitment and membership, these factors exist as they are trying to set a good example for their family through providing another form of secondary socialisation. Another reason for women’s more involvement in religion is due to a concept introduced by Miller and Hoffman who claim that because of differential socialisation, girls being socialised to be passive and to act more traditional and conservative, therefore their more religious. Due to things such as gendered language and subjects at schools e. g. child care women are warmed into the traditional nuclear family ideologies and acting as mechanism of Parsons ‘warm bath’ theory taking on the expressive role. Another reason is a biological reason due to male’s higher testosterone levels religion doesn’t provide them with satisfactory answers during times when they require salvation e. g. absolute poverty therefore their more likely to take a pro-active approach such as crime. A second reason mentioned by Miller and Hoffman id differential roles and that’s the fact women have different positions to men in society, women in paid work are given a ‘second-class status’ even after the women’s liberation movements in the 1970’s, prejudice is still strong within rationalised culture of paid work e. g. women cant exceed their glass ceiling therefore all the high powered jobs are male occupied. Due to this females are discriminated against in a socially desirable manner as they are again given the traditional family roles e. g. women get a 9 month maternity leave compared to men who get 2 weeks; women through stereotypical views are given the expressive role involving the private sphere. However these points have been criticised as the economy over the past years has become increasingly more feminised just like other aspects of society and the superstructure e. g. education, these have been refereed to as the ‘gender-quake’. Neo-Marxist Zertsky would argue that women are acting as part of the safety-valve in order for the exploitation of the subject-class to continue, this is way capitalist society controlled by the oppressor has enforced such ruling-class ideologies into peoples lives. Another reason for women’s more involvement in religion is due to primary socialisation, role models. They were probably raised by a mother who placed emphasis on religion, due to feeling marginalised and going through a ‘crisis of life’ as they were in a time of uncertainty (not knowing how to raise their chills) therefore through the theodicy’s of religion which acted as a tonic of self-confidence for them they were given a guide. Another fact to consider is that women simply live longer then men, therefore during times of loneliness they turn to religion as it provides them with a sense of community, and those who migrate to other countries religion allows cultural transition (Bruce). Marxist feminist Beauvoir recognises the unjust situation of women in society and argues they are being ‘doubly-exploited’. Beauvoir believes that religion provides a theodicy of dispirivelege for women; providing them with a sacred canopy and acting as a bulwark against anomie (Berger) is a postmodern society. Stark and Bainbridge argue due to the compensation that religion provides, exchange theory, women feel more secure about life on earth as they defer their gratification.